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Bermudian English

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Bermudian English
Native toBermuda
Native speakers
63,917 (2016)[1]
Latin (English alphabet)
Official status
Regulated bynot regulated
Language codes
ISO 639-3–
IETFen-KY

Bermudian English is a regional dialect of English found in Bermuda, a British overseas territory in the North Atlantic. Standard English is used in professional settings and in writing, while vernacular Bermudian English is spoken on more casual occasions.[2] The Bermudian dialect began to develop following settlement in the early 17th century and retains traits of Elizabethan English.[3] Bermudian English Creole is also spoken in Bermuda, especially among younger Bermudians.[4][5]

Casual observers tend to have difficulty in placing the Bermudian dialect, as it differs from those that are clearly British, American, or Caribbean; they also note that the accent tends to vary between individuals.[6] To Americans, it sounds slightly English, while those from the British Isles find it more American.[7]

Categorisation

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Bermudian English has been called "one of the most severely underresearched varieties of English".[8] It primarily shows a mixture of traits typical of British English and American English, and is generally classified as a form of American (rather than Caribbean) English.[9] Bermudian actor Earl Cameron noted that because the Bermudian accent sounded American, he was able to land a speaking role in London's West End in 1942.[10]

An early detailed study of Bermudian English, in 1933, stated that this type of speech "would create least remark, if indeed any, between, say, Norfolk, Virginia, and Charleston, South Carolina". Bermuda was settled as an extension of the Colony of Virginia, Charleston and the Carolina Province were settled from Bermuda, and Bermuda retained close links with both into the 19th century. Within the British Empire, Bermuda was administered not as part of the British West Indies but with the continental colonies to its west as part of British America until 1783, then as part of British North America, with closest ties to the Maritimes, until left out of the 1867 Confederation of Canada. The start of the Bermudan tourism industry in the latter 19th century would see its transport connections move to the North East of the United States, from where most of its visitors continue to come.[11]

Large-scale West Indian immigration to Bermuda, especially Sandys and Pembroke parishes, began with the expansion of the Royal Naval Dockyard (as a result of the lack of cheap, unskilled labour in Bermuda) at the turn of the twentieth century, and affected the dialect of certain demographic groups. Many others immigrated later in the century, settling mostly in Pembroke Parish and western Devonshire Parish, north of the City of Hamilton; the "back of town" (of Hamilton) dialect and the English spoken by many blacks at the West End consequently reflects this. Contemporary printed media record that West Indian agricultural labourers had also immigrated in the closing decades of the nineteenth century, when their waning maritime industries forced Bermudians to explore other industries, including agriculture, which was highly stigmatised resulting in a reliance on imported labour, primarily from the Portuguese Atlantic islands. Bermuda's eastern parishes (Devonshire, Smith's, Hamilton, and St. George's) were primarily engaged in shipbuilding, with most farming (or gardening, as Bermudians term it) taking place in the central and western parishes (Sandys, Southampton, Warwick, and Paget). Consequently, in certain aspects of vocalization, some Bermudian English dialects are close to some versions of Caribbean English,[12] and some would bracket all these varieties to the broad region of the "English-speaking West Indies".[13] Azorean Portuguese has also impacted on Bermudian English as a result of immigration since the 1840s. Many Bermudians, mostly young men, with no known West Indian or Portuguese forebears adopt West Indian or Portuguese accents when speaking humorously or derisively.[5]

Phonology

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The dialect's most evident characteristic is a variation in letter/sound assignment. The switching of [v] and [w],[14] characteristic of many dialects in Southern England during the 18th and 19th centuries,[15] and of [d] and [dʒ] (similarly to the dialects of English speakers of Gaelic heritage), when combined with a front vowel, can both be seen in the title of a humorous glossary, Bermewjan Vurds (Bermudian Words).[16]

Bermuda was administratively part of continental British America 'til the 1783 independence of the colonies that became the United States of America, and thereafter was part of British North America, within which it was grouped with the Maritimes until 1867, at which point, as an Imperial fortress, it was left out of the formation of the Canadian dominion and remained under the administration of the British Government, which increasingly grouped Bermuda for convenience with the British West Indian colonies (usually termed as "the West Indies and Bermuda" or "the Caribbean and Bermuda").[17][18] It is unclear whether any similarities between Bermudian English and Newfoundland English date from this period, or pre-date it. The use of [æ] and [ɛ] is interchangeable and vowels are often elongated. [θ] and [ð] turn into [f] and [v], respectively. Bermudian is also non-rhotic, like British English or New York accent. There's a simplification of codas like 'best' and 'soft" become bes and sof. Coda [ɫ] is semivocalized to [w].[citation needed]

Bermudian Creole English

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Bermudian Creole English
Bermudian Patwah
Native toBermuda
English Creole
Official status
Regulated bynot regulated
Language codes
ISO 639-3–

Bermudian Creole English, also called Bermudian Patwah, is a creolized form of Bermudian English (similar and related to the English-based creoles: Caymanian English, Turks and Caicos Creole, and San Andrés–Providencia Creole); which is a dialect of Jamaican Patwah spoken particularly among Bermuda’s younger generations.[19][4]

Bermudian Patwah is significantly influenced by Jamaican Patwah and shares many of the same words such as Bredren (Friend), Di (The), Gwine (Going), and Wahm (What’s happening).[20][21] Which is due to a shared heritage, and the close familial ties that many Bermudians have to Jamaica, such as Premier David Burt (politician),[22] Wayne Caines (MP),[23] and former Premier Ewart Brown.[24] Similarly Bermuda has also produced a number of internationally renowned Dancehall and Reggae artists such as Mishka (musician), and Collie Buddz, who are both native Patwah speakers.

The Island of Jamaica was initially repopulated by 54 Bermudians in 1655, and a further 200 Bermudians in 1658, following the Taíno genocide in the Colony of Santiago and the British Invasion of Jamaica,[25][26][27] along with the fact that Bermuda’s first recorded local hero was a Jamaican slave named (Tom), who was put on trial in 1682 for plotting a slave rebellion in Bermuda.[28][29][30]

Common Bermudian Words

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Word Meaning
Aceboy / Acegirl Good friend
Backa * At the back of / Behind
Bermy Bermuda / Bermudian
Bredren * Friend
Bye Boy
Chingas Wow
Chopse / Chopsing Chatting / Gossiping / Time-wasting
Criss * Nice / Cool / Awesome
Deal wid * To handle in a rigorous manner
Di * The
Di Rock Bermuda
Ganzy * T-shirt / Sweater / Outfit
Gombey Junkanoo
Greeze Food / Meal
Gribble Angry / Irritable / Bad-tempered
Gwine * Going
Micing Daydreaming
Mindral Soda
Seen * I understand
Session * Party
Shadeesh Sausage
Wahm * What’s happening
Wotless * Worthless / Wreckless
Wrinch Scold / Reprimand
Yute * Youth

[31][32][33][34][35] (Shared: Bermudian / Jamaican Patwah) *

Further Reading

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  • Cassidy, Frederic G. Jamaica Talk: Three Hundred Years of the English Language in Jamaica. Kingston: University Press of the West Indies. ISBN 978-9-7664017-0-2.
  • Cassidy, F. G., Le Page, R. B. (2009). Dictionary of Jamaican English (Second ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-5211184-0-8.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  • Chang, Larry (2014). Biesik Jumiekan: Introduction to Jamaican Language. Washington DC: Gnosophia Publishers (Chuu Wod imprint). ISBN 978-0-9773391-8-1.
  • Eberle, Nicole (2021). Bermudian English: A sociohistorical and linguistic profile. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. ISBN 978-9-0272085-4-5.

References

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  1. ^ "2016 Census Report" (PDF). Government of Bermuda, Department of Statistics. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 July 2020. Retrieved 7 August 2020.
  2. ^ Ruth Thomas, "Notes on Bermudian Language", in "Bermuda connections", Smithsonian Folklife Festival. 2001. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 2001.
  3. ^ Petrone, Kelly. Welcome to the Bermuda Department of Tourism's Media Information Kit Archived December 22, 2010, at the Wayback Machine, Corbin & Associates, Ltd
  4. ^ a b "Culture: Talking The Bermudian Talk". Bernews. 22 November 2010. Retrieved 23 July 2024.
  5. ^ a b Shorto, Lieutenant-Colonel A. Gavin (2011-02-04). "The roots of Creole charm". The Royal Gazette. City of Hamilton, Pembroke, Bermuda. Archived from the original on 2023-03-30. Retrieved 2023-03-30.
  6. ^ Weller, Anthony. Celebration Bermuda Archived 2017-07-26 at the Wayback Machine, The New York Times, June 15, 2003
  7. ^ "From chingas to chopsing: introducing Bermudian English". Oxford English Dictionary. 2021-03-15. Archived from the original on 2023-01-05. Retrieved 2023-01-05.
  8. ^ Cecilia Cutler, Stephanie Hackert and Chanti Seymour, "Bermuda and Bahamas", in Ulrich Ammon (ed.), Sociolinguistics. An International Handbook. 2nd ed. Vol. 3. Walter de Gruyter, 2006. ISBN 3-11-018418-4. p. 2066.
  9. ^ Tom McArthur (ed.), Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1992. ISBN 0-19-214183-X. pp. 116, 352.
  10. ^ Bourne, Stephen (2005). Black in British frame. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 106. ISBN 978-0-8264-7898-6.
  11. ^ Harry Morgan Ayres, "Bermudian English", American Speech 8:1 (1933), p. 4. Available online to JSTOR subscribers Archived 2018-09-01 at the Wayback Machine
  12. ^ Cecilia Cutler, "English in the Turks and Caicos Islands: A look at Grand Turk" in Contact Englishes of the Eastern Caribbean, ed. Michael Aceto and Jeffrey P. Williams. John Benjamins: 2003, pp. 51–80. ISBN 90-272-4890-7. p. 60.
  13. ^ John Wells, Accents of English 3: Beyond the British Isles. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982. ISBN 0-521-29719-2. p. 561.
  14. ^ Dependents information on Bermuda, United States. Dept. of the Air Force, 1956, page 3
  15. ^ On the Opposite Sides of the Continuum: Standard British English and Cockney. A Historical Outline of the Parallel Developments of the Two Varieties Archived 2011-02-06 at the Wayback Machine, Matteo Santipolo, Università degli Studi di Padova, Department of Linguistic and Literary Studies
  16. ^ Peter A. Smith and Fred M. Barritt, Bermewjan Vurds - a Dictionary of Conversational Bermudian Archived 2024-05-26 at the Wayback Machine. Hamilton, Bermuda: Lizard Press, 1988.
  17. ^ "Caribbean Regiment Trains In U.S. For Active Service". Trinidad Guardian. Port-of-Spain, Trinidad. 1944-06-08. (Secretary of State for War Sir Percy James Grigg, KCB, KCSI, PC) I should like to send to you and to all the officers and men in your battalion my best wishes on your departure for an active theatre of operations.
    The army is glad to welcome you and I feel sure that the men from the Caribbean and Bermuda will carry on the fine traditions founded by their fathers in the last war.
  18. ^ "Caribbean Regiment Trains In U.S. For Active Service". Trinidad Guardian. Port-of-Spain, Trinidad. 1944-06-08. (Secretary of State for the Colonies (Major (Honorary Colonel, TA) Oliver Stanley, MC PC MP, Royal Field Artillery)) Now that your battalion has left its home base to take its place overseas with Allied Forces, I should like to send you and all ranks my best wishes for your success. I know how much you and your friends in the Caribbean and Bermuda have wished for this opportunity, and I have no doubt that you will make the very most of it, and that your bearing and discipline, in all circumstances, will fulfil the high expectation of us all. Good luck to all of you.
  19. ^ Shorto, Lieutenant-Colonel A. Gavin (2011-02-04). "The roots of Creole charm". The Royal Gazette. City of Hamilton, Pembroke, Bermuda. Archived from the original on 2023-03-30. Retrieved 2023-03-30.
  20. ^ Cassidy, F. G., Le Page, R. B. (2007). Dictionary of Jamaican English. (Second ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 148, 217. https://www.amazon.com/Dictionary-Jamaican-English-Frederic-Cassidy/dp/9766401276
  21. ^ Chang, Larry (2014). Biesik Jumiekan: Introduction to Jamaican Language. Washington DC: Chuu Wod (Gnosophia Publishers). pp. 195, 199, 205. https://www.amazon.com/Biesik-Jumiekan-Introduction-Jamaican-Language/dp/0977339181
  22. ^ "New Bermuda Premier A 'Miracle Baby'". The Gleaner. 23 July 2017. Retrieved 17 December 2017.
  23. ^ "Caines twins combine to tell their story". The Royal Gazette. 2 April 2014. Retrieved 25 July 2024.
  24. ^ "Former Bermuda premier praises formative years in Jamaica at book launch". The Gleaner. 29 May 2023. Retrieved 23 July 2024.
  25. ^ Kennedy, Jean (1971). ″The Isle of Devils: Bermuda under the Somers Island Company 1609 - 1685.″ London: Collins. pp. 215, 266.
  26. ^ Wilkinson, Henry (1933). ″The Adventurers of Bermuda: A history of the island from its discovery until the dissolution of the Somers Island Company in 1684.″ London: Oxford University Press. pp. 300–301.
  27. ^ Jarvis, Michael J. (2010). “In the Eye of All Trade: Bermuda, Bermudians, and the Maritime Atlantic World, 1680–1783.” Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. pp. 45, 67.
  28. ^ Bernhard, Virginia (1999). “Slaves and Slaveholders in Bermuda, 1616–1782.” Columbia: University of Missouri Press. pp. 196–198; See also: Wilkinson, Henry (1958). “The Adventurers of Bermuda” (Second ed.). London: Oxford University Press. pp. 18–24, 29–34.
  29. ^ Jarvis, Michael J. (2022). “Isle of Devils, Isle of Saints: An Atlantic History of Bermuda, 1609–1684.” Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University. p. 350.
  30. ^ "Bermuda's Black History: The 17th and 18th Centuries". The Bermudian. 7 February 2019. Retrieved 23 July 2024.
  31. ^ "From chingas to chopsing: introducing Bermudian English". Oxford English Dictionary. 2021-03-15. Archived from the original on 2023-01-05. Retrieved 2023-01-05.
  32. ^ "The caribbean dictionary (Bermuda)".
  33. ^ "Bermemes - Learn Bermudian words and phrases".
  34. ^ "Bermewjan Vurds".
  35. ^ "Jamaican Patwah Dictionary - Learn Patwah".
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